KFC PESTEL Analysis for International Expansion

KFC PESTEL Analysis for International Expansion BACKGROUND OF COMPANY Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) was founded in Corbin, Kentucky by Harland Sanders. He was born on a small farm in Henryville, Indiana, United States in 1890. He likes cooking and inventing a new recipe. He tried to mix eleven herbs and spices with wheat flour, he was success with his work and he had a secret recipe for cooking chicken. During the 1930s he tried to develop and became known. The States governor named Harland Sanders an honorary Kentucky Colonel at the first time. Second he developed a unique, quick method of spicing and pressure because he had opened a 142-seat restaurant, a motel and a gas station. In 1950 he decided to close his restaurant because the customers decreased but he invested the first franchise in 1952 and also 105 USD with the secret recipe. He sold 5 percent per piece chicken for copyright. In 1964 an investor group bought Kentucky Fried Chicken and made a deal that Sander was Kentucky Fried Chicken ambassador for helping and giving suggestion to them. In 1971 Kentucky Fried Chicken join with Connecticut-based especially in food and in 1986 Kentucky Fried Chicken had a big chance that Soft-Drink giant PepsiCo bought Kentucky Fried Chicken for $840 million from RJR Nabisco. They prepared to separate KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell to be a new Corporation under the name Tricon Global Restaurant and they had revenue. From that time Kentucky Fried Chicken became well known until KFC that we went to eat fried chicken nowadays. KFC GOING INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Nowadays we can find Kentucky Fried Chicken everywhere and the taste of the fried chicken is special. We can taste the KFCs product in our country although they are from overseas. That is meaning that KFC going international. They are doing international business to increase their revenue. They sold their products such as the food and also they hold they service. They are going to international business to expand their market around the world. Even though their domestic market far from the original place in United States, Kentucky Fried Chicken continued their internationality well, especially in Asia. KFC took an aggressive construction plan that called for average of non-United States unit to be built per day. With the expectation by 1995 the number of international units would exceed those in the United States. In 1996 the PepsiCo prepared itself of its restaurant by drawing together Pizza Hut, KFC, and Taco Bell. A single senior manager tried to overseen this operation and also all transaction between them. Kentucky Fried Chicken went to international business well and they joined the group brand. They growth under Tricon/Yum Brands and they had some benefit from the hands-on management style of David Novak the head of Tricon. They called Tricon is the parent of KFC and Tricon came up with one solution that growth at the beginning of 1998. They opened multibrand stores which are combined between two or three of the Tricon chains. In 2002 they changed its name to Yum! Brands and developed 1,375 multibrand stores. Eventually they could sales reached $4.8 billion in 2002 and KFC controlled around 46 percent United States fast food chicken market. Kentucky Fried Chicken was the most recognized foreign in China in 2001 where KFC had 500 restaurants there, about 300 outlets in Thailand and in Indonesia more than 150 restaurants. They can adapt with the local tastes with their secret recipes and they successfully the navigated the political and regulatory climate. They profits increased by close to 50 percent for its combine with China in 2000 and figured by any domestic division. In 2006 they could increased their profit and had 1,700 restaurants in China more than tripling in around five years. Kentucky Fried Chicken was opening a new Chinese outlet in every 22 hours. Their politic is very good in marketing. They hope eventually the number of KFC restaurant in China as in United States. Thus while the United States market had continued to slumber for Kentucky Fried Chicken had been run by Tricon/Yum! Overseas Kentucky Fried Chicken had a powerful force. This is the table of Yum! Brands, Inc. Presence and Competitive. Countries WHY KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN DIFFERENT WITH ACROSS COUNTRIES AND HOME COMPANY? They have differences between across countries and home country because they Kentucky Fried Chicken had a good management and also the secret recipe has long been a source of their advertising. Kentucky Fried Chicken was the first chain to enter the fast-food industry and also Kentucky Fried Chicken is the most worlds popular chicken restaurant chain. They had more than 11,000 outlets around the world in 85 countries. Kentucky Fried Chicken could go international with their struggles to pass the global competition. Even in fact they have 8 million customers in each day. KFC has early into the fast-food industry and they develop their strong brand name recognition and strong foothold in the industry. For example is their new logo was the only one which significantly enhance the brands image (the founder of KFCs image). Even though Kentucky Fried Chicken went overseas, they stayed on themselves. The traditional loyalty employees were worked in this company. The management gave comfortableness to their employee. Such as a pension, and could receive help with other non-income needs. So the employee prefers to work in the Kentucky Fried Chicken. They different with other companies that operating efficiencies are achieved through improvements in customer service, cleaner restaurant, faster and friendlier service, and continued high-quality products but KFC is different that they improve the operating efficiencies by reducing overhead and other operating costs can directly affect operating profit. At this time Kentucky Fried Chicken is better than the others. Kentucky Fried Chicken has a multibranding strategy to achieve their goals. KFC is a publicly traded company with responsibilities to all shareholders. There are many investor tried to invest in their company. In their home country United States there are companies which just tried not to pass the globalization. KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE All form of the competition in sport as well in the business, are won by those with the best advantages. The most popular ways to make the differences between themselves by sharing an article, Kentucky Fried Chicken shared their product in many ways. They made in the website and so many others way. They can get the competitive advantage by hold their fried chicken tasted and use the secret recipe to achieve it. They sell food in a fast, friendly environment that appeal to pride conscious health to mind the consumers. Thats their mission and they used the strategy to achieve them. These are the strategy of KFC. They develop the product. For example make the better tasted or stayed on the tastes before. They increased the variety on menu to make the costumer interested and feel better if they choose Kentucky Fried Chicken as the place to have their food. Introduced the desert menu and buffet to restaurant. Even though KFC comes from United States, they also introduce on the neighborhood program. The item targets are the African American like Greens, Macaroni and Cheese, Peach cobbler, and Red beans rice. About the place of the restaurant they choose all the aspect public places like in mall, university, hospital, airport, stadium, amusement park, office building, and mobile units. Kentucky Fried Chicken has evolved through different organizational changes that brought because the changes of the ownership that followed from the beginning of Kentucky Fried Chicken. Their other strategy is working with to make improving the operating efficiencies. I elimination of overhead cost and increased efficiency they were the center. KFC emphasized customer service, and high-quality products. KFC is including the sales company because they sell the products. As of 1995, Kentucky Fried Chicken was the sixth ranked in the United States sales fast-food chains. This is the table of the Fast-Food Chains: In the over past seven years from 1987-1994, Kentucky Fried Chicken worldwide has grown in the around on average rate 8.2 percent. The world has gone to the more healthy living and this is the chance off KFC to meet the changing demands society with make a changes on their menu just like Honey BBQ Chicken, Popcorn Chicken, Rotisserie Chicken and they had begun promoting the lunch and dinner buffets. The buffets are very important in Kentucky Fried Chicken because it can persuade customer to dine-in instead of take out. KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN CULTURE Kentucky Fried Chicken has culture. In United States they can not life without work hard because the people there prefer to work to unemployed. They work fast so the order can be served in a second. Not only work fast but also they work accurate it means that they work in really work. Also in the employee had the committee and they have an organization except the KFC management. Their restaurant buildings are built according to their logo picture. Even though the restaurant in the different country the building of their restaurant almost same. KFC is really appreciating the government law. They follow all the rule and growth and be famous just like nowadays. Every one knows what KFC is. Those are their company culture because they come from the United States. Kentucky Fried Chicken also has the corporate culture. They had a small competition or they called it just like a game between the employee just like the faster and or the fastest worker of them. Not only the games they had a special greeting to the customer. The customers feel comfortable and they prefer Kentucky Fried Chicken. They apply the royalty system to take a summary of expected and be received from the sale of the units of franchises. The royalties after the re-franchising is complete will not include in the budget in the proposed program. We sure that their corporate culture gain their business to be success with their own culture the customer feel different with other corporation. Doesnt matter if the restaurant is overseas they use the same culture. But they adapt with the culture of the country where they stayed. By the corporate culture they can make they strategic management. The first is Market Development, that Kentucky Fried Chicken introduces their present and new products and services into the new geographic areas. Product Development, in this step they bring back the rotisserie chicken. And the last part is Concentric Diversification; in this they can add more customer and they service variety to them. KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN P. E. S. T. E. L. ANALYSIS Kentucky Fried Chicken had PESTEL (Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal) analysis that can change their International Business strategy. POLITICAL Kentucky Fried Chicken provides the fast-food service. To achieve their goals they make a political system that can guide them or they called as a guide service. This political system could change their business strategy and make the progress to their company. For example, they have employee that run the activity in the restaurant. They make a contract with the employee and make a pension fee. They also provide the alternative in buying KFC. KFC Hospice Dinners that delivering a caring out reach to the terminally ill. The Hospice delivers meals to the terminally ill nationwide. These meals are delivered directly to the patient in their own house. We always called that a delivery orders. The customers feel better when they enjoyed this system. KFC Cafeterias which offering dishes competitors. And KFC Grocery Products which The Cornel is always home. ECONOMICAL If we talked about the economy aspect, we talked about the fund or money. Kentucky Fried Chicken provides the lower price. They have a food packet; just like we buy the packet we can get the discount or something that support us to buy there again. In this economic analysis we find the benefit of economical that changes the strategy of international business of Kentucky Fried Chicken. They can grow up with the lower price and the satisfying service. SOCIAL Kentucky Fried Chicken is one of the International Company which has begun their company early and nowadays they are one of the biggest companies in the world. Why the KFC can be the biggest company. Kentucky Fried Chicken built they social connection with others organization or the company around the world. Beside that in their restaurant, they also provide the food that the tasted is related with the tasted in the country they took the place to build the restaurant. In addition abut the employee, they are worked the people from the country which are have a good performance and have a talent in cooking for the chef. KFC also supported the many of events, they help the committee by sponsored the event. Sometimes they give the donation to the poor people. With this social activity they company will be known. TECHNOLOGICAL In this analysis, Kentucky Fried Chicken can go out of their home country. They use the modernization technology to advertise their product. They make a website of KFC so easily we just search in internet what do we want about KFC and so many information about KFC. There are also many transactions that do by internet and the KFC just delivered the order to the customer address. In our country they have the phone number that can contact if we want to order some food. Sometimes the customer lazy to go out to buy some food, this is the reason they make an order delivered. ENVIRONMENTAL Environment is the one of the important analysis that must be had by the company. Without environment they cant run their transaction because the environments are their customer and they get profit from the product that has been bought. Many people like Kentucky Fried Chicken Company because they are not like the industrial company. KFC Company does not disturb the public activity by make a noisy. They just invite the environment to come to the restaurant to enjoy their food. LEGAL Kentucky Fried Chicken is the legal company. They growth under the Yum! Brands. They gather with Pizza Hut and Mc. Donalds that they are the food company. This legal analysis guides them to go overseas because the companies which want to going international business are the legal company. They also can hold their recipe because it has been legality so no one can steal it. In other hands, the employee also protect from the stealing cooking recipes. Kentucky Fried Chicken Company can growth bigger and bigger. They are legal so every activity is done in legal system. THREE MAJOR ELEMENTS PESTEL OF KENTUCKY FRIED CHICKEN POLITICAL Kentucky Fried Chicken has the political analysis. Their politic analysis is their directive to run the restaurant. They use politic to solve the problem. Because of the current devaluation, their profits are greatly reduced. For example in Mexico which has a largely unskilled labor pool that provides little stability. In this case they got so many challenges to be solved. Political analysis is worked here. They made strategic alternatives to solve the problem. The strategic alternatives for KFC are follows: Re-franchise all company owned the Mexican units franchises. Completely divest KFC of Mexican operations. Leave Mexico as is and grow other foreign markets. The strategic that mention below are the political of Kentucky Fried Chicken to solve the problem in Mexico. Even though they try to the best sometimes they measure has the advantages and disadvantages. We can not imagine if Kentucky Fried Chicken Company does not have a political analysis. The company has been closed for a long time. But know we can see that Kentucky Fried Chicken can show their best by use the political system. In the marketing division they prepared all the best that they can. The company doesnt want the customer feel bad. They appreciate all the input from the customer so they know which one is better to be expanded. SOCIAL Kentucky Fried Chicken social analysis is one of the analyses that support the KFC progress. They have social activities in their environment such as help the people, giving the donation, etc. They built the social in their activity in their management system. For example the employee, they have the small competition to build their togetherness in doing their job. That was the social activity in the intern of company. Now we talk about the international business activities they have connection to the company around the world. Not only with the company they also have the connection with the international organization. Therefore they can going to international business through many challenge to achieve it. TECHNOLOGICAL Without technology there are no companies can achieve their mission. They public the update information about the company. Technology that they use in largely is using internet because internet is the most popular to search the information in all aspect that what we need. They made a website so we can browse easily. And also for delivering order they need a technology. The first is to advertise their product; second they use the machine to cook, using the vehicle to go to the customer place. Kentucky Fried Chicken is one of the best companies. They become popular not also from the food but some of them from the technological aspect. Sometimes from the television, banner or everything that the KFCs advertisement was publish by using the technological analysis. In additional, Kentucky Fried Chicken can compute all the probability even in loss or profit. The technological is important to prove this statement. They have their own software system to make their activity can run well. Nowadays every activity is using the technological system. In cashier, kitchen, marketing, service, so many other activities. CONCLUSION If we research all the explanation about Kentucky Fried Chicken Company we can conclude that they are the big company which has been known around the world. They have a good management, secret recipe, international business strategy that supports KFC to be adhered in the customers mind. They gather all the aspect to make them perfect. They have PESTEL analysis. These are the things that guide the company to be better and hope they can make the perfect company or at least can reach the brighter future.

Proposal Plan Essay

The purpose for the organization Walgreens is to stay put in a dynamic, self-motivated and energetic business environment. Walgreens is a successful business looking to progress overall presentation and place the company for potential expansion. In order for this to follow through, a total rewards program needs to be created. The incentives and compensation plan must connect with the goals of the organization. A solid rewards program will build motivation in the work place. As the text states, â€Å"The notions that rewards are means to motivate employees assuming that the rewards are distributed fairly. Rewards seem to be part of many different perspectives in motivation (Helsley, 2013). † The most important part is the employees in this organization, and sadly the motivation is not up to par. Employees who lack motivation, insinuates that employees are not receiving proper rewards. Instead of management focusing on only one specific part of a department, they should rather work together towards a solid vision for the business. Presently, there is room for opportunity, to actually analyze the Human Resource Management system and see which problems which are leading employees to show lack of motivation. Through various researches, employees and outside sources, especially Human Capital Consulting organizations, believe that financial compensation is lower than market value. Employees do also not comprehend how pay interlinks with job performance. 20011 to 20012 surveys show that employees think that pay connects to seniority (Pulakos, 2004). Adding to standard compensation, individual rewards are not well connected to performance. For example, departments like Research & Development and sales focus the transaction force and rarely see any return. The lack of proper positioning for financial compensation and work performance is causing confusion and affecting the motivational problems. Walgreens needs to acknowledge that employee’s views need to be considered. This is the reason why the distance in understanding between the employees and the business needs to be fixed. Alterations to financial compensation can be expensive. The consultant from Human Capital Consulting the reward and compensation system needs to be fully reformed. The total cost of the reward system alterations are about $165,000. Since the business has been dealing with sales declining an investment of that sort would put the organization at a high risk (Walgreens Co. , 2013). Even though the company has to cope with that expense the organization has the chance to better compete in the market and reduce the risk of losing employees to other businesses due to financial compensation formats. This problem can be resolved if the management team at Walgreens takes into consideration the cause of external competition. Key objectives to consider are to make certain that the pay is enough to attract and sustain employees. If employees do not see that their pay is competitive compared to what other organizations are giving for the same type of work, then that might cause for the employee to leave. Even though employee motivation and financial compensation are viewed as big problems for Walgreens, the business’ ability to form attraction and support career enhancement has been dwindling. The problems can be caused by the lack of Human Resource Management in the business strategic human capital management, with a failure by leadership to form a successful culture that aids the business objectives. As the business sets itself straight and alters its strategy, it will be vital to effectively train employees and make certain that they are set for the challenges that come their way. Sadly, motivation issues are harming the business and may affect the strategic changes. Examples of the weak culture and employee development are seen in the Research & Development and sales parts of the organization. Each section contributes to the success of the business but receives rarely any recognition, whether it is pay or just an overall recognition. Walgreens has the chance to brace the culture and form a complete employee development system that supports the enterprises vision and goals for the future. To add to this the business has the ability to explore other areas aside from the financial compensation to augment employee motivation and job satisfaction. Executing a career development system will not be enough for long-term enhancements. Management at Walgreens will need to center on building situations that practice career development (Walgreens Co. , 2013). Employees at Walgreens have different interests. These interests can include financial compensation, career enhancement or development, strong and effective communication and of course support from the management team. Employees have the right to be rewarded fairly and be acknowledged for their efforts and hard work to the organization. To add to this, employees have the right to be included in the organizations culture instead of being part of teams that are divided up. This usually leads to a lack of direction. Employees crave cooperation, a challenging working environment and dedication. That’s why effective end state goals would be to make certain that employee motivation is being measured effectively. Also, form career development plans and spot out important achievements within the business. Not only employee motivation should be worked on, but also set up a comprehensive rewards system. The reward system will give employees the chance to take charge of their reward as well as form a spot to market benefits that pertain to Walgreen employees. An internal web application should be created by HR (Walgreens Co. , 2012). The system will center on benefits administration, cross-function team goal management, and incentive rewards tracking systems. Employees will have the option of reviewing their benefits and make alterations on their time. Also, managers will be able to appraise the improvement and donations made by cross-functional teams. Sales statistics will also be part of the reward system to keep track of sales performance. Overall, Walgreens needs to restructure its employee compensation program. This means that the organization needs to first acknowledge that employee motivation is low. From there, increase it, by rewarding employees for a job well done. Acknowledging them in front of their employees and even bonuses will be nice. Flexible schedule is so important. Basically, re-evaluating everything to make certain that employees are feeling valued.

The Hidden Secret of Custom Research Paper Writing

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The Roman Empires Emulation of the Greeks - 1597 Words

Fog rolls through a meadow, hiding a small clan of tribesman roaming south to attack and pillage villages and Roman settlements. Roman soldiers stand guard on a stone brick wall fortified to defend from barbarians to the north and formed a place for custom and trading posts. The invaders were limited by the height of the wall, with no way to flank their positions as the fortified line separated England from the Irish Sea to the North Sea. The Roman Empire expanded past Turkey into Egypt, an immense expansion that would only be rivaled by Genghis Khan. While Greece can be referred to as a civilization of knowledge, the Romans were able to apply the new rational thinking into empire building that surpassed Alexander the Great. Roman art, architecture, religion even entertainment are highly innovative forms of the Greek culture before it. The Roman Empire emulated Greece and the Athenians, much like how the Renaissance was a revival of both cultures before it. In many ways Roman sculpture went further than the Greek’s with magnificent displays of humanism and opulent Gods. Greek sculptures focused on extremely masculine portrays of man but with dimensions that were more or less reasonable in comparison to our human bodies. They were looking for perfection of a physical human body, and in the way the human body was sculpted. The Roman’s would put on great displays of grandeur, examples that can be seen through the busts and full-length sculptures such as Augustus of PrimaShow MoreRelatedJustinian And The Byzantine Empire1568 Words   |  7 Pagesincluding Justinian, considered themselves to be Roman and part of the Roman Empire. This mentality led to the revival of the Roman Empire in Byzantine and in its capital, Constantinople. During his rule, Justinian led the empire to its greatest size both in the amount of controlled land and influence over groups in Europe and Asia. He also contributed to the spread of Christianity bo th within the Byzantine Empire and without. Finally, Justinian preserved Roman laws for the Byzantine Empire and other EuropeanRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesWomen, 213. 24. Among the important figures were the Chilean jurist Alejandro Alverez, cofounder of the American Institute of International Law; the Russian à ©migrà © A. N. Mandelstam, who settled in Paris after the Bolshevik Revolution; and the Greek expatriot A. F. Frangulis, founder of the International Diplomatic Academy in Paris. See Burgers, â€Å"The Road to San Francisco,† 450–451. 25. Burgers, â€Å"The Road to San Francisco,† 455–459. I want to thank Tiffany Patterson, an influential theorist

The Rise Of Civilization And Ancient Civilizations

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The emergence of civilization in Africa provided a framework for most of developments in African history. There were different setups cultural and political aspects when civilization was emerging. The Egyptian civilization was the earliest and it was one of the catalysts in the development of civilization in other parts of Africa. The civilization began around 3000Read MoreThe Yellow River And The Chinese Nation1405 Words   |  6 Pagesby almost all Chinese people that it is the cradle of Chinese civilization and the spiritual home of the Chinese people (Zhou). The Yellow River is the symbol of the Chinese nation, the spirt of the Chinese people, but most importantly civilization itself. The Yellow River gets its name from the yellowish color of the water. The water is yellow because each year over 1.6 billion tons of soil flows into the river, which causes the rise and shifting of the river bed (Wu). Before the damming of the

Coram, Robert Boyd The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War Free Essays

A biography of Col. John Boyd, Coram’s book reads much like the collection of interviews that it is. He gives the impression that if the reader happened upon any of these characters at happy hour, the stories would be identical. We will write a custom essay sample on Coram, Robert Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War or any similar topic only for you Order Now Dispersed throughout the book is a supply of background information and context, glimpses and bits about family life, and a very understandable layman’s introduction to the scholarly work of John Boyd. Coram is an ex-newspaper man that has recently produced two military biographies. He lays out for his reader not only the successes of John Boyd, but the rough edges of the man as well. The brilliance that brought the engineering world the Energy-Maneuverability equations was balanced by Boyd’s egoism and anti-authoritarianism. Coram’s objective seems to be to reveal a principle regarding brilliant personnel: that they are invaluable to any organization, providing the leadership can stomach their idiosyncrasies. Coram sets his Boyd biography up in three sections: Fighter Pilot, Engineer and Scholar. The three sections are based on the three major accomplishments of Col. Boyd. As a fighter pilot, Boyd used his creative intellect to develop advanced techniques and tactics, based on his subconscious knowledge of the workings of maneuverability based on available energy. As an engineer, Boyd codified the principles of energy-maneuverability, and evaluated all of the fighter aircraft of the time using the equations he developed. This evaluation, although looked upon skeptically at the time, has been proven to be accurate, and the E-M theory continues to be used to both evaluate and design aircraft. As a scholar, Boyd evaluated decision-making and came up with the ODDA loop. (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) This concept is a simple diagram of the decision making process, and has been disseminated widely, with variations, all the way from the military to driver training curriculum. A variation of the model is called IPDE; Identify, Predict, Decide, Execute. An old adage says that a man’s best work is done after 50, and I believe that John Boyd validated it. His Destruction and Creation essay, which Coram includes at the end of the biography, is a masterful assembly of the concepts of the Heisenberg Principle and Thermodynamics, applied to a type of his decision-making theory. Concepts of the present system of thought, combined with concepts from multiple other disciplines, can be creatively made into a composite that is more than the sum of the pieces used, and useful for further evaluation. This is essentially the synthesis used in the development of the E-M theory equations. Coram deals as respectfully as possible with the dysfunctional family life of Boyd. Several passages leave the reader deeply saddened that such a brilliant man could be at the same time so base. He also presents the distinct probability that Boyd’s personality and fighter-pilot approach to obstacles caused as many personal difficulties as it remedied. Coram also reveals the truth that presentation is paramount; as Boyd’s abrasive presentation of his ideas initially caused much individual resistance, and his masterful presentation of his ideas later on was the main reason that they became widely adopted. Altogether, a well written biography, that leaves my wishing I had sat thru at least a few happy hours with Col. Boyd and his associates, if only to hear the tall tales of a meritorious veteran warrior-scholar. Coram brings John Boyd to the reader as he was; brilliant, dauntless, abrasive, even offensive, but loyal to his cause and his message. He leaves the reader with the nagging question: Am I going to Do something, or be content to Be somebody? How to cite Coram, Robert Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War, Papers

INTERNAL

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE Essay INTRODUCTIONInternal Combustion Engine, a heat engine in which the fuel is burned ( that is, united with oxygen ) within the confining space of the engine itself. This burning process releases large amounts of energy, which are transformed into work through the mechanism of the engine. This type of engine different from the steam engine, which process with an external combustion engine that fuel burned apart from the engine. The principal types of internal combustion engine are : reciprocating engine such as Otto-engine, and Diesel engines ; and rotary engines, such as the Wankel engine and the Gas-turbine engine. In general, the internal combustion engine has become the means of propulsion in the transportation field, with the exception of large ships requiring over 4,000 shaft horsepower ( hp). In stationary applications, size of unit and local factor often determine the choice between the use of steam and diesel engine. Diesel power plants have a distinct economic advantage over steam engine when size of the plant is under about 1,000 hp. However there are many diesel engine plants much large than this. Internal combustion engines are particularly appropriate for seasonal industries, because of the small standby losses with these engines during the shutdown period. HistoryThe first experimental internal combustion engine was made by a Dutch astronomer, Christian Huygens, who, in 1680, applied a principle advanced by Jean de Hautefeuille in 1678 for drawing water. This principle was based on the fact that the explosion of a small amount of gunpowder in a closed chamber provided with escape valves would create a vacuum when the gases of combustion cooled. Huygens, using a cylinder containing a piston, was able to move it in this manner by the external atmospheric pressure. The first commercially practical internal combustion engine was built by a French engineer, ( Jean Joseph ) Etienne Lenoir, about 1859-1860. It used illuminating gas as fuel. Two years later, Alphonse Beau de Rochas enunciated the principles of the four-stroke cycle, but Nickolaus August Otto built the first successful engine ( 1876 ) operating on this principle. Reciprocating EngineComponents of EnginesThe essential parts of Otto-cycle and diesel engines are the same. The combustion chamber consists of a cylinder, usually fixed, which is closed at one end and in which a close-fitting piston slides. The in-and-out motion of the piston varies the volume of the chamber between the inner face of the piston and the closed end of the cylinder. The outer face of the piston is attached to a crankshaft by a connecting rod. The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. In multi-cylindered engines the crankshaft has one offset portion, called a crankpin, for each connecting rod, so that the power from each cylinder is applied to the crankshaft at the appropriate point in its rotation. Crankshafts have heavy flywheels and counterweights, which by their inertia minimize irregularity in the motion of the shaft. An engine may have from 1 to as many as 28 cylinders. Fig. 1, Component of Piston Engines. The fuel supply system of an internal-combustion engine consists of a tank, a fuel pump, and a device for vaporizing or atomizing the liquid fuel. In Otto-cycle engines this device is a carburetor. The vaporized fuel in most multi-cylindered engines is conveyed to the cylinders through a branched pipe called the intake manifold and, in many engines, a similar exhaust manifold is provided to carry off the gases produced by combustion. The fuel is admitted to each cylinder and the waste gases exhausted through mechanically operated poppet valves or sleeve valves. The valves are normally held closed by the pressure of springs and are opened at the proper time during the operating cycle by cams on a rotating camshaft that is geared to the crankshaft . By the 1980s more sophisticated fuel-injection systems, also used in diesel engines, had largely replaced this traditional method of supplying the proper mix of air and fuel; computer-controlled monitoring systems improved fu!el economy and reduced pollution. IgnitionIn all engines some means of igniting the fuel in the cylinder must be provided. For example, the ignition system of Otto-cycle engines , the mixture of air and gasoline vapor delivered to the cylinder from the carburetor and next operation is that of igniting the charge by causing a spark to jump the gap between the electrodes of a spark plug, which projects through the walls of the cylinder. One electrode is insulated by porcelain or mica; the other is grounded through the metal of the plug, and both form the part of the secondary circuit of an induction system. The principal type of high-tension ignition now commonly used is the battery-and-coil system. The current from the battery flows through the low-tension coil and magnetizes the iron core. When this circuit is opened at the distributor points by the interrupter cam, a transient high-frequency current is produced in the primary coil with the assistance of the condenser. This induces a transient, high-frequency, high-voltage current in the secondary winding. This secondary high voltage is needed to cause the spark to jump the gap in the spark plug. The spark is directed to the proper cylinder to be fired by the distributor, which connects the secondary coil to the spark plugs in the several cylinders in their proper firing sequence. The interrupter cam and distributor are driven from the same shaft, the number of breaking points on the interrupter cam being the same as the number of cylinders. Cooling SystemBecause of the heat of combustion, all engines must be equipped with some type of cooling system. Some aircraft and automobile engines, small stationary engines, and outboard motors for boats are cooled by air. In this system the outside surfaces of the cylinder are shaped in a series of radiating fins with a large area of metal to radiate heat from the cylinder. Other engines are water-cooled and have their cylinders enclosed in an external water jacket. In automobiles, water is circulated through the jacket by means of a water pump and cooled by passing through the finned coils of a radiator. Some automobile engines are also air-cooled, and in marine engines sea water is used for cooling. StarterUnlike steam engines and turbines, internal-combustion engines develop no torque when starting, and therefore provision must be made for turning the crankshaft so that the cycle of operation can begin. Automobile engines are normally started by means of an electric motor or starter that is geared to the crankshaft with a clutch that automatically disengages the motor after the engine has started. Small engines are sometimes started manually by turning the crankshaft with a crank or by pulling a rope wound several times around the flywheel. Methods of starting large engines include the inertia starter, which consists of a flywheel that is rotated by hand or by means of an electric motor until its kinetic energy is sufficient to turn the crankshaft, and the explosive starter, which employs the explosion of a blank cartridge to drive a turbine wheel that is coupled to the engine. The inertia and explosive starters are chiefly used to start airplane engines. Patriotism EssayGas TurbineAlso called as combustion turbine, engine that employs gas flow as the working medium by which heat energy is transformed into mechanical energy. Gas is produced in the engine by the combustion of certain fuels. Stationary nozzles discharge jets of this gas against the blades of a turbine wheel. The impulse force of the jets causes the shaft to turn. A simple-cycle gas turbine includes a compressor that pumps compressed air into a combustion chamber. Fuel in gaseous or liquid-spray form is also injected into this chamber, and combustion takes place there. The combustion products pass from the chamber through the nozzles to the turbine wheel. The spinning wheel drives the compressor and the external load, such as an electrical generator. In a turbine or compressor, a row of fixed blades and a corresponding row of moving blades attached to a rotor is called a stage. Large machines employ multistage axial-flow compressors and turbines. In multi-shaft arrangements, the initial turbine stage (or stages) powers the compressor on one shaft while the later turbine stage (or stages) powers the external load on a separate shaft. The efficiency of the gas-turbine cycle is limited by the need for continuous operation at high temperatures in the combustion chamber and early turbine stages. A small, simple-cycle gas turbine may have a relatively low thermodynamic efficiency, comparable to a conventional gasoline engine. Advances in heat-resistant materials, protective coatings, and cooling arrangements have made possible large units with simple-cycle efficiencies of 34 percent or higher. The efficiency of gas-turbine cycles can be enhanced by the use of auxiliary equipment such as inter-coolers, regenerators, and reheaters. These devices are expensive, however, and economic considerations usually preclude their use. In a combined-cycle power plant, the considerable heat remaining in the gas turbine exhaust is directed to a boiler called a heat-recovery steam generator. The heat so recovered is used to raise steam for an associated steam turbine. The combined output is approximately 50 percent greater than that of the gas turbine alone. Combined cycles with thermal efficiency of 52 percent and higher are being put into service. Gas turbines have been applied to the propulsion of ships and railroad locomotives. A modified form of gas turbine, the turbojet, is used for airplane propulsion. Heavy-duty gas turbines in both simple and combined cycles have become important for large-scale generation of electricity. Unit ratings in excess of 200 megawatts (MW) are available. The combined-cycle output can exceed 300 MW. The usual fuels used in gas turbines are natural gas and liquids such as kerosene and diesel oil. Coal can be used after conversion to gas in a separate gasifier. Internal-Combustion Engines and Air PollutionAir pollution from automobile engines ( smog ) was first detected about 1942 in Los Angeles, CA. Smog arises from sunlight-induced photochemical reactions between nitrogen dioxide and the several hundred hydrocarbons in the atmosphere. Undesirable products of the reactions include ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacylnitrates ( PAN ). These are highly oxidizing in nature and cause eye and throat irritation. Visibility-decreasing nitrogen dioxide and aerosols are also formed. Five categories of air pollutants and percent contribution from all transportation source and the highway vehicle subset are show in Table -1. Virtually all of the transportation CO, about half the hydrocarbons, and about one-third of the nitrogen oxides come from gasoline engines. Diesel engines account for the particulate. Table-1.Estimated Total Annual US Emissions from Artificial Sources (1980)Carbonmonoxide HydrocarbonsSulfuroxidesNitrogenoxides ParticulateTotal, teragram/yr.85.421.823.720.77.8All transportation, %81363.84418Highway vehicles, %72291.73214SOURCE: EPA Report 450/4-82-001, 1982. Emissions from internal-combustion engines include those from blowby, evaporation, and exhaust. These can vary considerably in amount and composition depending on engine type, design, and condition, fuel-system type, fuel volatility, and engine operating point. For an automobile without emission control it is estimated that of the hydrocarbon emission, 20 to 25 percent arise from blowby, 60 percent from the exhaust, and the balance from evaporative losses primarily from the fuel tank and to a lesser extent from the carburetor. All other non-hydrocarbon emissions emanate from the exhaust. At least 200 hydrocarbon (HC) compounds have been identified in exhaust. Some such as the olefin compounds react products. These are termed reactive hydrocarbons. Others such as the paraffin are virtually unreactive. Special Developments The Stratified-Charge Engine a modification of the conventional spark-ignition piston engine, the stratified charge engine is designed to reduce emissions without the need for an exhaust-gas recirculation system or catalytic converter. Its key feature is a dual combustion chamber for each cylinder, with a prechamber that receives a rich fuel-air mixture while the main chamber is charged with a very lean mixture. The spark ignites the rich mixture that in turn ignites the lean main mixture. The resulting peak temperature is low enough to inhibit the formation of nitrogen oxides, and the mean temperature is sufficiently high to limit emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon. Two rather distinct means for accomplishing the stratified charge condition are under consideration :1. A single combustion chamber with a well-controlled rotating air motion. This arrangement is illustrated (Fig.6) by the Texaco Combustion Process (TCP), patented in 1949. 2. A prechamber or two-chamber system. This is illustrated by Fig.7, which shows the general arrangement of the Honda Compound-vortex controlled-combustion (CVCC) system. For both systems, very careful development has proved to be necessary to obtain complete combustion of the fuel under the wide range of speed and load conditions required of an automotive engine.